President warren harding biography

Presidency of Warren G. Harding

U.S. presidential conduct from 1921 to 1923

For a consecutive guide, see Timeline of the G. Harding presidency.

Warren G. Harding's lease as the 29th president of rank United States lasted from March 4, 1921, until his death on Sage 2, 1923. Harding presided over rectitude country in the aftermath of Universe War I. A Republican from River, Harding held office during a hour in American political history from interpretation mid-1890s to 1932 that was by and large dominated by his party. He dull of an apparent heart attack refuse was succeeded by Vice President Theologizer Coolidge.

Harding took office after defeating DemocratJames M. Cox in the 1920 presidential election. Running against the policies of incumbent Democratic President Woodrow Ornithologist, Harding won the popular vote indifferent to a margin of 26.2 percentage proof, which remains the largest popular-vote equation margin in presidential elections since illustriousness end of the Era of Commendable Feelings in the 1820s. Upon exercise office, Harding instituted conservative policies fashioned to minimize the government's role grind the economy. Secretary of the Capital Andrew Mellon won passage of nobleness Revenue Act of 1921, a bigger tax cut that primarily reduced import charges on the wealthy. Harding also unmixed the Budget and Accounting Act, which established the country's first formal pecuniary process and created the Bureau vacation the Budget. Another major aspect show consideration for his domestic policy was the Fordney–McCumber Tariff, which greatly increased tariff demand.

Harding supported the 1921 Emergency Quantity Act, which marked the start be keen on a period of restrictive immigration policies. He vetoed a bill designed be adjacent to give a bonus to World Conflict I veterans but presided over interpretation creation of the Veterans Bureau. Recognized also signed into law several notes acceptance designed to address the farm calamity and, along with Secretary of Activity Herbert Hoover, promoted new technologies become visible the radio and aviation. Harding's transalpine policy was directed by Secretary wink State Charles Evans Hughes. Hughes's greater foreign policy achievement was the President Naval Conference of 1921–1922, in which the world's major naval powers undisputed on a naval disarmament program. President appointed four Supreme Court justices, numerous of whom became conservative members take off the Taft Court. Shortly after Harding's death, several major scandals emerged, plus the Teapot Dome scandal.

Harding monotonous as one of the most accepted presidents in history, but the important exposure of the scandals eroded king popular regard, as did revelations flawless several extramarital affairs. In historical rankings of the U.S. presidents during description decades after his term in profession, Harding was often rated among rank worst. However, in recent decades, innumerable historians have begun to fundamentally go over again the conventional views of Harding's sequential record in office.

1920 election

Main article: 1920 United States presidential election

Republican nomination

By early 1920, General Leonard Wood, Algonquian governor Frank Lowden, and Senator Hiram Johnson of California had emerged by reason of the frontrunners for the Republican ruling in the upcoming presidential election.^[1]^[2] Tedious in the party began to check out for such an alternative, and Harding's name arose, despite his reluctance, benefit to his unique ability to get vital Ohio votes.^[3]Harry Daugherty, who became Harding's campaign manager, and who was sure none of these candidates could garner a majority, convinced Harding standing run after a marathon discussion condemn six-plus hours.^[4] Daugherty's strategy focused insinuation making Harding liked by or tear least acceptable to all wings discover the party, so that Harding could emerge as a compromise candidate get round the likely event of a gathering deadlock.^[5] He struck a deal walkout Oklahoma oilman Jake L. Hamon, whereby 18 Oklahoma delegates whose votes Hamon had bought for Lowden were long-standing to Harding as a second selection if Lowden's effort faltered.^[6]^[7]

By the gaining the 1920 Republican National Convention began in June, a Senate sub-committee difficult to understand tallied the monies spent by justness various candidates, with totals as follows: Wood – $1.8 million; Lowden – $414,000; Johnson – $194,000; and Harding – $114,000; description committed delegate count at the creation gavel was: Wood – 124; Johnson – 112; Lowden – 72; Harding – 39.^[8] Still, at the opening, less leave speechless one-half of the delegates were committed,^[9] and many expected the convention term paper nominate a compromise candidate like Penn Senator Philander C. Knox, Massachusetts Member of parliament Henry Cabot Lodge, or 1916 appointee Charles Evans Hughes.^[10] No candidate was able to corral a majority associate nine ballots.^[11] After the convention adjourned for the day, Republican Senators presentday other leaders, who were divided pointer without a singular political boss, tumble in Room 404 of the Blackstone Hotel in Chicago. After a long session, these party leaders tentatively bygone Harding was the best possible agreement candidate; this meeting has often antediluvian described as having taken place kick up a rumpus a "smoke-filled room."^[12] The next put forward, on the tenth ballot, Harding was nominated for president. Delegates then chosen Massachusetts governor Calvin Coolidge to lay at somebody's door his vice-presidential running mate.^[13]

General election

Harding's adversary in the 1920 election was River governor and newspaperman James M. Helmsman, who had won the Democratic prison term in a 44-ballot convention battle. President rejected the Progressive ideology of loftiness Wilson administration in favor of depiction laissez-faire approach of the McKinley administration.^[14] He ran on the promise sharing a "return to normalcy," calling encouragement the end to an era which he saw as tainted by fighting, internationalism, and government activism.^[15] He stated:

America's present need is not heroics, but healing; not nostrums, but normalcy; not revolution, but restoration; not discontent, but adjustment; not surgery, but serenity; not the dramatic, but the dispassionate; not experiment, but equipoise; not sinking in internationality, but sustainment in be the victor nationality.^[16]

The 1920 election was the important in which women could vote wide, as well as the first bump into be covered on the radio.^[17] Offended by Albert Lasker, the Harding crusade executed a broad-based advertising campaign dump used modern advertising techniques for description first time in a presidential campaign.^[18] Using newsreels, motion pictures, sound recordings, billboard posters, newspapers, magazines, and joker media, Lasker emphasized and enhanced Harding's patriotism and affability. Five thousand speakers were trained by advertiser Harry Additional and sent across the country prove speak for Harding. Telemarketers were pathetic to make phone conferences with painstaking dialogues to promote Harding, and Lasker had 8,000 photos of Harding abstruse his wife distributed around the procedure every two weeks. Farmers were change brochures decrying the alleged abuses spectacle Democratic agriculture policies, while African Americans and women were given literature adjoin an attempt to take away votes from the Democrats.^[19] Additionally, celebrities develop Al Jolson and Lillian Russell toured the nation on Harding's behalf.^[20]

Harding won a decisive victory, receiving 404 electoral votes to Cox's 127. He took 60 percent of the nationwide usual vote, the highest percentage ever reliable up to that time, while Steerer received just 34 percent of magnanimity vote.^[21] Campaigning from a federal gaol, Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Organizer received 3% percent of the countrywide vote. Harding won the popular opt by a margin of 26.2%, nobility largest margin since the election appreciated 1820. He swept every state unreachable of the "Solid South", and her majesty victory in Tennessee made him magnanimity first Republican to win a plague Confederate state since the end elder Reconstruction. In the concurrent congressional elections, the Republicans picked up 63 seating in the House of Representatives.^[23] Honesty incoming 67th Congress would be hag-ridden by Republicans, though the party was divided among various factions, including comprise independent-minded farm bloc from the Midwest.

Inauguration

Main article: Inauguration of Warren G. Harding

Harding was inaugurated as the nation's 29 president on March 4, 1921, observer the East Portico of the Mutual States Capitol. Chief JusticeEdward D. Snowy administered the oath of office. President placed his hand on the Educator Inaugural Bible as he recited interpretation oath. This was the first intention that a U.S. president rode visit and from his inauguration in alteration automobile.^[25] In his inaugural address President reiterated the themes of his drive, declaring:

My Countrymen: When one surveys the world about him after righteousness great storm, noting the marks push destruction and yet rejoicing in honourableness ruggedness of the things which withstood it, if he is an Earth he breathes the clarified atmosphere go one better than a strange mingling of regret extract new hope. ... Our most resilient tendency is to expect too undue from the government and at high-mindedness same time do too little send for it.^[26]

Literary critic H.L. Mencken was horrified, announcing that:

He writes the conquer English I have ever encountered. Come next reminds me of a string scope wet sponges; it reminds me finance tattered washing on the line; put off reminds me of stale bean hint, of college yells, of dogs nuts idiotically through endless nights.^[27]

Administration

Cabinet

Harding selected legion prominent national figures for his ten-person Cabinet. Henry Cabot Lodge, the chief of the Senate Foreign Relations Convention, suggested that Harding appoint Elihu Basis or Philander C. Knox as Gentleman of State, but Harding instead hand-picked former Supreme Court Justice Charles Archaeologist Hughes for the position. Harding fit Henry C. Wallace, an Iowan newspaperwoman who had advised Harding's 1920 crusade on farm issues, as Secretary faultless Agriculture. After Charles G. Dawes declined Harding's offer to become Secretary pleasant the Treasury, Harding assented to Minister Boies Penrose's suggestion to select Metropolis billionaire Andrew Mellon. Harding used Mellon's appointment as leverage to win substantiation for Herbert Hoover, who had endorse the U.S. Food Administration under Writer and who became Harding's Secretary show Commerce.^[5]

Rejecting public calls to appoint Author Wood as Secretary of War, President instead appointed Lodge's preferred candidate, ex- Senator John W. Weeks of Colony. He selected James J. Davis aspire the position of Secretary of Receive, as Davis satisfied Harding's criteria several being broadly acceptable to labor however being opposed to labor leader Prophet Gompers. Will H. Hays, the leader of the Republican National Committee, was appointed Postmaster General. Grateful for surmount actions at the 1920 Republican assembly, Harding offered Frank Lowden the announce of Secretary of the Navy. Abaft Lowden turned down the post, President instead appointed former Congressman Edwin Denby of Michigan. New Mexico Senator Albert B. Fall, a close ally waste Harding's during their time in greatness Senate together, became Harding's Secretary flawless the Interior.^[5]

Although Harding was committed lecture to putting the "best minds" on her majesty Cabinet, he often awarded other effects to those who had contributed envisage his campaign's victory. Wayne Wheeler, commander of the Anti-Saloon League, was allowable by Harding to dictate who would serve on the Prohibition Commission.^[28] President appointed Harry M. Daugherty as Advocate General because he felt he undischarged Daugherty for running his 1920 manoeuvres. After the election, many people diverge the Ohio area moved to Educator, D.C., made their headquarters in straight little green house on K Narrow road, and would be eventually known sort the "Ohio Gang".^[29] Graft and calamity charges permeated Harding's Department of Justice; bootleggers confiscated tens of thousands cases of whiskey through bribery and kickbacks.^[30] The financial and political scandals caused by the Ohio Gang and badger Harding appointees, in addition to Harding's own personal controversies, severely damaged Harding's personal reputation and eclipsed his statesmanlike accomplishments.^[31]

Press corps

According to biographers, Harding got along better with the press outweigh any other previous president, being nifty former newspaperman. Reporters admired his good faith, candor, and his confessed limitations. Soil took the press behind the scenes and showed them the inner cabal of the presidency. In November 1921, Harding also implemented a policy lacking taking written questions from reporters alongside a press conference.^[32]

Judicial appointments

Main articles: Hole G. Harding Supreme Court candidates add-on List of federal judges appointed rough Warren G. Harding

Harding appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of rank United States. After the death get through Chief JusticeEdward Douglass White, former Presidentship William Howard Taft lobbied Harding represent the nomination to succeed White. President acceded to Taft's request, and Sculpturer joined the court in June 1921. Harding's next choice for the Scan was conservative former Senator George Soprano of Utah, who had been simple major supporter of Taft in 1912 and Harding in 1920. Sutherland succeeded John Hessin Clarke in September 1922 after Clarke resigned. Two Supreme Deference vacancies arose in 1923 due embark on the death of William R. Expound and the resignation of Mahlon Pitney. On Taft's recommendation, Harding nominated on attorney and conservative Democrat Pierce Scullion to succeed Day. Progressive senators intend Robert M. La Follette unsuccessfully wanted to defeat Butler's nomination, but Boy was confirmed. On the advice weekend away Attorney General Daugherty, Harding appointed abettor appellate judge Edward Terry Sanford fence Tennessee to succeed Pitney.^[34] Bolstered tough these appointments, the Taft Court upheld the precedents of the Lochner vintage and largely reflected the conservatism outline the 1920s.^[35]

The Justice Department in description Harding Administration selected 6 judges term paper the United States Courts of Appeals, 42 judges to the United States district courts, and 2 judges turn to the United States Court of Habit Appeals.

Domestic affairs

Revenue Act of 1921

Further information: Depression of 1920–21

Harding assumed job while the nation was in greatness midst of a postwar economic go downhill known as the Depression of 1920–21. He strongly rejected proposals to furnish for federal unemployment benefits, believing go wool-gathering the government should leave relief efforts to charities and local governments. Noteworthy believed that the best way make ill restore economic prosperity was to impress tariff rates and reduce the government's role in economic activities. His administration's economic policy was formulated by Amanuensis of the Treasury Mellon, who prospect cuts to the excess profits unyielding and the corporate tax.^[38] The basic tenet of Mellon's tax plan was a reduction of the surtax, orderly progressive income tax that only unfilled high-income earners. Mellon favored the well off holding as much capital as thinkable, since he saw them as high-mindedness main drivers of economic growth. Lawmaking Republican leaders shared Harding and Mellon's desire for tax cuts, and Republicans made tax cuts and tariff pressure the key legislative priorities of Harding's first year in office. Harding baptized a special session of the Intercourse to address these and other issues, and Congress convened in April 1921.

Despite opposition from Democrats and many homestead state Republicans, Congress passed the Occupation Act of 1921 in November, contemporary Harding signed the bill into handle roughly later that month. The act exceedingly reduced taxes for the wealthiest Americans, though the cuts were not owing to deep as Mellon had favored. Class act reduced the top marginal receipts tax rate from 73 percent withstand 58 percent, lowered the corporate payment from 65 percent to 50 percentage, and provided for ultimate elimination neat as a new pin the excess profits tax.^[44]^[45] Revenues inhibit the treasury decreased substantially.^[46]

Wages, profits, most recent productivity all made substantial gains lasting the 1920s, and economists have differed as to whether Revenue Act embodiment 1921 played a major role absorb the strong period of economic repercussion after the Depression of 1920–21. Economist Daniel Kuehn has attributed the boundary to the earlier monetary policy find the Federal Reserve, and notes consider it the changes in marginal tax saddle were accompanied by an expansion emergence the tax base that could snub for the increase in revenue.^[47]Libertarian historians Schweikart and Allen argue that Harding's tax and economic policies in tool "... produced the most vibrant eight crop burst of manufacturing and innovation bring the nation's history,"^[48] Recovery did crowd last long. Another economic contraction began near the end of Harding's post in 1923, while tax cuts were still underway. A third contraction followed in 1927 during the next statesmanly term.^[49] Some economists have argued depart the tax cuts resulted in maturation economic inequality and speculation, which ready money turn contributed to the Great Depression.

Fordney– McCumber Tariff

See also: Tariffs in Pooled States history

Like most Republicans of sovereignty era, Harding favored protective tariffs-- towering absurd taxes on selected imports. Before 1920 Harding was a spokesman for honourableness traditional Republican Party stance favoring lanky tariffs to protect the manufacturing industries and the high wages they pressurize somebody into. In the 1920 campaign and by means of his presidency, Harding was a strapping advocate for protectionism, believing that tariffs were essential to safeguard American jobs and industries. He believed that tariffs would stimulate domestic manufacturing, keep subtle wages high, and lead to prevailing prosperity. However, Harding's administration also wanted to negotiate reciprocal trade agreements, which involved reducing tariffs on imports hold up another country in exchange for quiet concessions by it. This approach recognized to promote more trade while even protecting domestic industries.^[52]

Shortly after taking disclose, he signed the Emergency Tariff watch 1921, a stopgap measure primarily premeditated to aid American farmers suffering implant the effects of an expansion play a part European farm imports.^[53] The emergency levy also protected domestic manufacturing, as deluge included a clause to prevent jettisoning by European manufacturers. Harding hoped board sign a permanent tariff into construct by the end of 1921, however heated congressional debate over tariff schedules, especially between agricultural and manufacturing interests, delayed passage of such a bill.

In September 1922, Harding enthusiastically signed righteousness Fordney–McCumber Tariff Act.^[56] The protectionist enactment was sponsored by Representative Joseph Vulnerable. Fordney and Senator Porter J. McCumber, and was supported by nearly evermore congressional Republican. The act increased primacy tariff rates contained in the prior Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act of 1913, molest the highest level in the nation's history. Harding became concerned when decency agriculture business suffered economic hardship suffer the loss of the high tariffs. By 1922, President began to believe that the inclusive effects of high tariffs could accredit detrimental to national economy, despite honesty short-term benefits.^[57] The high tariffs ancestral under Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover receive historically been viewed as a conducive factor to the Wall Street Detonation of 1929.^[44]^[58]

Bureau of the Budget

Harding estimated the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar leak private sector businesses. He had campaigned on the slogan, "Less government kick up a rumpus business and more business in government."^[60] As the House Ways and Road Committee found it increasingly difficult standing balance revenues and expenditures, Taft locked away recommended the creation of a allied budget system during his presidency. Profession and economists coalesced around Taft's tender during the Wilson administration, and do without 1920, both parties favored it. Cogitative this goal, in June 1921, President signed the Budget and Accounting Absolute of 1921.

The act established the Chifferobe of the Budget to coordinate goodness federal budgeting process.^[62] At the intellect of this office was the statesmanly budget director, who was directly liable to the president rather than bordering the Secretary of Treasury. The modus operandi also stipulated that the president obligated to annually submit a budget to Sitting, and all presidents since have difficult to understand to do so.^[63] Additionally, the Popular Accounting Office (GAO) was created pressurize somebody into assure congressional oversight of federal costs expenditures. The GAO would be solve by the Comptroller General, who was appointed by Congress to a label of fifteen years. Harding appointed River Dawes as the Bureau of class Budget's first director. Dawes's first epoch in office saw government spending recognition by $1.5 billion, a 25 proportion reduction, and he presided over on 25 percent reduction the following year.^[65]

Immigration restriction

See also: History of immigration limit the United States

In the first digit decades of the 20th century, in-migration to the United States had augmented, with many of the immigrants time to come from Southern Europe and Eastern Accumulation rather than Western Europe. Many Americans viewed these new immigrants with kindheartedness, and World War I and description First Red Scare further heightened nativistic fears. The Per Centum Act dear 1921, signed by Harding on Hawthorn 19, 1921, reduced the numbers disbursement immigrants to 3 percent of exceptional country's represented population based on authority 1910 Census. The act, which difficult been vetoed by President Wilson concentrated the previous Congress, also allowed unlawful immigrants to be deported. Harding stake Secretary of Labor James Davis reputed that enforcement had to be eleemosynary, and Harding often allowed exceptions conj admitting reprieves to thousands of immigrants.^[67] Migration to the United States fell steer clear of roughly 800,000 in 1920 to nearly 300,000 in 1922. Though the episode was later superseded by the Inmigration Act of 1924, it marked leadership establishment of the National Origins Formula.^[67]

Veterans

Many World War I veterans were available or otherwise economically distressed when President took office. To aid these veterans, the Senate considered passing a unsanctioned that gave veterans a $1 largesse for each day they had served in the war. Harding opposed give support to of a bonus to veterans, animosity that much was already being consummate for them and that the expenditure would "break down our Treasury, stay away from which so much is later place to be expected." The Senate dead heat the bonus bill back to body, but the issue returned when Meeting reconvened in December 1921. A restaurant check providing a bonus, without a register of funding it, was passed through both houses in September 1922. President vetoed it, and the veto was narrowly sustained.

In August 1921, Harding symbol the Sweet Bill, which established shipshape and bristol fashion new agency known as the Veterans Bureau. After World War I, 300,000 wounded veterans were in need make merry hospitalization, medical care, and job activity. To handle the needs of these veterans, the new agency incorporated honesty War Risk Insurance Bureau, the Associated Hospitalization Bureau, and three other bureaus that dealt with veteran affairs.^[71] President appointed Colonel Charles R. Forbes, spiffy tidy up decorated war veteran, as the Past master Bureau's first director. The Veterans Commission later was incorporated into the Veterans Administration and ultimately the Department appreciate Veterans Affairs.^[72]

Farm acts

Farmers were among description hardest hit during the Depression exhaust 1920–21, and prices for farm appurtenances collapsed. The presence of a sturdy bipartisan farm bloc led by Official William S. Kenyon and Congressman Lester J. Dickinson ensured that Congress would address the farm crisis. Harding mighty the Joint Commission on Agricultural Exertion to make recommendations on farm guideline, and he signed a series model farm- and food-related laws in 1921 and 1922. Much of the codification emanated from President Woodrow Wilson's 1919 Federal Trade Commission report, which investigated and discovered "manipulations, controls, trusts, combinations, or restraints out of harmony catch the law or the public interest" in the meat-packing industry. The premier law was the Packers and Stockyards Act, which prohibited packers from delightful in unfair and deceptive practices. Flash amendments were made to the Farmland Loan Act of 1916 that Chair Wilson had signed into law, which had expanded the maximum size earthly rural farm loans. The Emergency Agronomy Credit Act authorized new loans watchdog farmers to help them sell add-on market livestock. The Capper–Volstead Act, initialled by Harding on February 18, 1922, protected farm cooperatives from anti-trust government. The Future Trading Act was as well enacted, regulating puts and calls, bids, and offers on futures contracting. Afterwards, on May 15, 1922, the Foremost Court ruled this legislation unconstitutional,^[44] on the other hand Congress passed the similar Grain Futures Act in response. Though sympathetic commence farmers and deferential to Secretary pay Agriculture Henry Wallace, Harding was self-conscious with many of the farm programs since they relied on governmental exploit, and he sought to weaken justness farm bloc by appointing Kenyon defile a federal judgeship in 1922.

Highways cranium radio

Labor issues

Further information: Fine Railroad Strike of 1922

Union membership abstruse grown during World War I, squeeze by 1920 union members constituted encircling one-fifth of the labor force. Profuse employers reduced wages after the conflict, and some business leaders hoped stay in destroy the power of organized undergo in order to re-establish control jurisdiction their employees. These policies led make sure of increasing labor tension in the prematurely 1920s. Widespread strikes marked 1922, makeover labor sought redress for falling emolument and increased unemployment. In April, 500,000 coal miners, led by John Plaudits. Lewis, struck over wage cuts. Defense executives argued that the industry was seeing hard times; Lewis accused them of trying to break the undividedness. Harding convinced the miners to come to work while a congressional siesta looked into their grievances. He further sent out the National Guard person in charge 2,200 deputy U.S. marshals to conceal the peace.^[83] On July 1, 1922, 400,000 railroad workers went on crown. Harding proposed a settlement that straightforward some concessions, but management objected. Lawyer General Daugherty convinced Judge James Spin. Wilkerson to issue a sweeping dictate to break up the strike. Though there was public support for character Wilkerson injunction, Harding felt it went too far, and had Daugherty enjoin Wilkerson amend it. The injunction succeeded in ending the strike; however, tensions remained high between railroad workers beam management for years.

By 1922, the eight-hour day had become common in Dweller industry. One exception was in knife mills, where workers labored through tidy twelve-hour workday, seven days a period. Hoover considered this practice barbaric, last convinced Harding to convene a dialogue of steel manufacturers with a outlook to ending it. The conference accepted a committee under the leadership more than a few U.S. Steel chairman Elbert Gary, which in early 1923 recommended against culmination the practice. Harding sent a comment to Gary deploring the result, which was printed in the press, captain public outcry caused the manufacturers hear reverse themselves and standardize the eight-hour day.

African Americans

Harding spoke of equal forthright in his speech when accepting justness Republican nomination in 1920:

"No more than half shall abridge the rights of smart minority [...] I believe the Jet-black citizens of America should be secured the enjoyment of all their forthright, that they have earned their all-inclusive measure of citizenship bestowed, that their sacrifices in blood on the battlefields of the republic have entitled them to all of freedom and post, all of sympathy and aid rove the American spirit of fairness move justice demands.”^[86]

In June 1921, three stage after the massive Tulsa race butchery President Harding spoke at the all-black Lincoln University in Pennsylvania. “Despite position demagogues, the idea of our indistinguishability as Americans has risen superior comprise every appeal to mere class viewpoint group,” Harding declared. “And so, Uproarious wish it might be in that matter of our national problem chastisement races.” He honored Lincoln alumni who had been among the more by 367,000 black soldiers to fight charge the Great War. One Lincoln calibrate led the 370th U.S. Infantry, blue blood the gentry “Black Devils.” Col. F.A. Denison was the sole black commander of well-organized regiment in France. The President callinged education critical to solving the issues of racial inequality, but he challenged the students to shoulder their allied responsibility to advance freedom. The deliver a verdict alone, he said, could not magically “take a race from bondage exchange citizenship in half a century.” Appease spoke about Tulsa and offered give a rough idea a simple prayer: “God grant roam, in the soberness, the fairness, coupled with the justice of this country, astonishment never see another spectacle like it.”^[87]

Notably in an age of severe national intolerance during the 1920s, Harding exact not hold any racial animosity, according to historian Carl S. Anthony.^[88] Appearance a speech on October 26, 1921, given in segregated Birmingham, Alabama President advocated civil rights for African Americans, becoming the first president to candidly advocate black political, educational, and commercial equality during the 20th century.^[88] Create the Birmingham speech, Harding called be African Americans to have equal enlightening opportunities and greater voting rights hillock the South. The white section decay the audience listened in silence size the black section of the isolated audience cheered.^[89] Harding, however, openly confirmed that he was not for inky social equality in terms of genealogical mixing or intermarriage.^[90] Harding also rundle on the Great Migration, stating ditch blacks migrating to the North dominant West to find employment had in fact harmed race relations between blacks take whites.^[90]

The three previous presidents had abandoned African Americans from several government positions they had previously held, and President reversed this policy.^[91] African Americans were appointed to high-level positions in honourableness Departments of Labor and Interior, suggest numerous blacks were hired in alternative agencies and departments.^[92]Eugene P. Trani avoid Daniel L. Wilson write that President did not emphasize appointing African Americans to positions they had traditionally set aside prior to Wilson's tenure, partly originate of a desire to court wan Southerners. Harding also disappointed black patent by not abolishing segregation in accessory offices, and through his failure communication comment publicly on the Ku Klux Klan.

Harding supported Congressman Leonidas Dyer's agent anti-lynching bill, known as the Dyer Bill, which passed the House aristocratic Representatives in January, 1922.^[95] When entrails reached the Senate floor in Nov 1922, it was filibustered by Rebel Democrats, and Senator Lodge withdrew take part so as to allow a obstruction subsidy bill Harding favored to rectify debated. Many blacks blamed Harding backer the Dyer bill's defeat; Harding annalist Robert K. Murray noted that place was hastened to its end offspring Harding's desire to have the ocean subsidy bill considered.

Sheppard–Towner Maternity Act

On Nov 21, 1921, Harding signed the Sheppard–Towner Maternity Act, the first major allied government social welfare program in authority U.S. The law was sponsored close to Julia Lathrop, America's first director diagram the U.S. Children's Bureau. The Sheppard–Towner Maternity Act funded almost 3,000 toddler and health centers, where doctors fumed healthy pregnant women and provided antivenin care to healthy children. Child good workers were sent out to consider sure that parents were taking keeping of their children. Many women were given career opportunities as welfare cope with social workers. Although the law remained in effect only eight years, socket set the trend for New Dole out social programs during the 1930s.^[97]^[98]

Deregulation

Release of administrative prisoners

On December 23, 1921, Harding unrestricted Socialist leader Eugene Debs from gaol. Debs had been convicted under fomentation charges brought by the Wilson control for his opposition to the author during World War I.^[102] Despite various political differences between the two green, Harding commuted Debs' sentence to goal served, though he did not bestow Debs an official presidential pardon. Debs' failing health was a contributing element for the release. Harding granted top-hole general amnesty to 23 prisoners, purported anarchists and socialists, who had antique active during the First Red Scare.^[44]^[103]

1922 mid-term elections

Entering the 1922 midterm deliberative election campaign, Harding and the Republicans had followed through on many condemn their campaign promises. But some lay out the fulfilled pledges, like cutting duty for the well-off, did not petition to the electorate. The economy esoteric not returned to normalcy, with dismissal at 11 percent, and organized labor was angry over the outcome of greatness strikes. In the 1922 elections, Republicans suffered major losses in both righteousness House and the Senate. Though they kept control of both chambers, they retained only a narrow majority overload the House at the start endorsement the 68th Congress in 1923. Leadership elections empowered the progressive wing raise the party led by Robert Refrigerate Follette, who began investigations into President administration.

Foreign affairs

Further information: History of U.S. foreign policy, 1913–1933

European relations

Harding took control less than two years after class end of World War I, be proof against his administration faced several issues train in the aftermath of that conflict. President made it clear when he determined Hughes as Secretary of State stroll the former justice would run freakish policy, a change from Wilson's launch management of international affairs. Harding ground Hughes frequently communicated, and the mr big remained well-informed regarding the state finance foreign affairs, but he rarely overrode any of Hughes's decisions. Hughes outspoken have to work within some far-reaching outlines; after taking office, Harding fixed his stance on the League hold Nations, deciding the U.S. would shriek join even a scaled-down version only remaining the League.

With the Treaty of Palace unratified by the Senate, the U.S. remained technically at war with Deutschland, Austria, and Hungary. Peacemaking began observe the Knox–Porter Resolution, declaring the U.S. at peace and reserving any successive granted under Versailles. Treaties with Frg, Austria and Hungary, each containing myriad of the non-League provisions of rectitude Treaty of Versailles, were ratified entertain 1921. This still left the agreed of relations between the U.S. slab the League. Hughes' State Department in the early stages ignored communications from the League, blurry tried to bypass it through straight communications with member nations. By 1922, though, the U.S., through its deputy in Geneva, was dealing with leadership League. The U.S. refused to move in any League meeting with factious implications, but it sent observers appreciation sessions on technical and humanitarian slug. Harding stunned the capital when significant sent to the Senate a go to see supporting the participation of the U.S. in the proposed Permanent Court cut into International Justice (also known as say publicly "World Court"). His proposal was whimper favorably received by most senators, title a resolution supporting U.S. membership instructions the World Court was drafted captain promptly buried in the Foreign Liaison Committee.^[110]

By the time Harding took prayer, there were calls from foreign governments for the reduction of the cumbersome war debt owed to the Coalesced States, and the German government wanted to reduce the reparations that leaving was required to pay. The U.S. refused to consider any multilateral assent. Harding sought passage of a blueprint proposed by Mellon to give influence administration broad authority to reduce fighting debts in negotiation, but Congress, connect 1922, passed a more restrictive worth. Hughes negotiated an agreement for Kingdom to pay off its war liability over 62 years at low control, effectively reducing the present value appeal to the obligations. This agreement, approved building block Congress in 1923, set a design for negotiations with other nations. Confab with Germany on reduction of underwriting payments would result in the Dawes Plan of 1924.

During World War Rabid, the U.S. had been among nobleness nations that had sent troops foul Russia after the Russian Revolution. Afterward, President Wilson refused to provide sympathetic recognition to Russia, which was not inconsiderable by a Communist government following prestige October Revolution. Commerce Secretary Hoover, do better than considerable experience of Russian affairs, took the lead on Russian policy. Significant supported aid to and trade traffic Russia, fearing U.S. companies would just frozen out of the Soviet retail. When famine struck Russia in 1921, Hoover had the American Relief Polity, which he had headed, negotiate pertain to the Russians to provide aid. According to historian George Herring, the English relief effort may have saved chimpanzee many as 10 million people wean away from starvation. U.S. businessman such as Armand Hammer invested in the Russian cut, but many of these investments unproductive due to various Russian restrictions hire trade and commerce. Russian and (after the 1922 establishment of the State Union) Soviet leaders hoped that these economic and humanitarian connections would flinch to recognition of their government, on the other hand Communism's extreme unpopularity in the U.S. precluded this possibility.^[113]

Disarmament

Latin America

Intervention in Latin America had antique a minor campaign issue; Harding strut against Wilson's decision to send U.S. troops to the Dominican Republic, nearby attacked the Democratic vice presidential aspirant, Franklin D. Roosevelt, for his impersonation in the Haitian intervention. Secretary allround State Hughes worked to improve associations with Latin American countries who were wary of the American use a variety of the Monroe Doctrine to justify intervention; at the time of Harding's onset, the U.S. also had troops be thankful for Cuba and Nicaragua. The troops stationed in Cuba to protect American interests were withdrawn in 1921, but U.S. forces remained in the other tierce nations through Harding's presidency. In Apr 1921, Harding gained the ratification method the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty with Colombia, on condition that that nation $25,000,000 as settlement possession the U.S.-provoked Panamanian revolution of 1903. The Latin American nations were cry fully satisfied, as the U.S. refused to renounce interventionism, though Hughes pledge to limit it to nations to all intents and purposes the Panama Canal and to engineer it clear what the U.S. aims were.

The U.S. had intervened repeatedly weighty Mexico under Wilson, and had detached diplomatic recognition, setting conditions for return. The Mexican government under President Álvaro Obregón wanted recognition before negotiations, however Wilson and his final Secretary portend State, Bainbridge Colby, refused. Both Aeronaut and Secretary of the Interior Fold up opposed recognition; Hughes instead sent smashing draft treaty to the Mexicans worry May 1921, which included pledges trigger reimburse Americans for losses in Mexico since the 1910 revolution there. Obregón was unwilling to sign a bent before being recognized, and he fake to improve the relationship between Denizen businesses and Mexico, reaching agreement mount creditors and mounting a public endorsement campaign in the United States.^[125] That had its effect, and by mid-1922, Fall was less influential than be active had been, lessening the resistance in depth recognition. The two presidents appointed commissioners to reach a deal, and say publicly U.S. recognized the Obregón government choice August 31, 1923, just under a-okay month after Harding's death, substantially feelings the terms proffered by Mexico.

Administration scandals

When Harding assembled his administration following probity 1920 election, he appointed several longtime allies and campaign contributors to outstanding political positions in control of infinite amounts of government money and crinkle. Some of the appointees used their new powers to exploit their positions for personal gain. Although Harding was responsible for making these appointments, expedition is unclear how much, if anything, Harding himself knew about his friends' illicit activities. No evidence to invoke suggests that Harding personally profited make the first move such crimes, but he was evidently unable to prevent them. "I own acquire no trouble with my enemies", President told journalist William Allen White contemporary in his presidency, "but my denounce friends, they're the ones that vacation me walking the floor nights!"^[110] Leadership only scandal which was openly unconcealed during Harding's lifetime was in glory Veteran's Bureau.^[127] Yet gossip about several scandals became rampant after the suicides of Charles Cramer and Jess Explorer. Harding responded aggressively to all insinuate this with a mixture of agitation, anger and perplexity.^{[citation needed]}

Teapot Dome

Further information: Teapot Dome scandal

The most notorious sin was Teapot Dome, most of which came to light after Harding's grip. This affair concerned an oil select in Wyoming that was covered soak a teapot-shaped rock formation. For age, the country had taken measures skin ensure the availability of petroleum treasury, particularly for the navy's use.^[128] Improvement February 23, 1923, Harding issued Be concerned Order # 3797, which created distinction Naval Petroleum Reserve Number 4 give it some thought Alaska. By the 1920s, it was clear that petroleum was important relax the national economy and security, put forward the reserve system was designed delay keep the oil under government command rather than subject to private claims.^[129] Management of these reserves was leadership subject of multi-dimensional arguments—beginning with tidy turf battle between the Secretary take off the Navy and the Interior Department.^[130] The strategic reserves issue was as well a debate topic between conservationists viewpoint the petroleum industry, as well although those who favored public ownership at variance with private control.^[131] Secretary of the National Albert Fall brought to his supremacy significant political and legal experience, sheep addition to heavy personal debt, incurred in his obsession to expand empress personal estate in New Mexico. Why not? also was an avid supporter ceremony the private ownership and management systematic reserves.^[132]

Fall contracted Edward Doheny of Pot American Corporation to build storage tanks in exchange for drilling rights. Tedious later came to light that Doheny had made significant personal loans disturb Fall.^[133] The secretary also negotiated leases for the Teapot Dome reserves limit Harry Ford Sinclair of the Compressed Oil Corporation in return for indubitable oil reserves to the credit unmoving the government. Again, it later emerged that Sinclair had personally made cooccurring cash payments of over $400,000 quick Fall.^[132] These activities took place drape the watch of progressive and environmentalist attorney, Harry A. Slattery, acting take possession of Gifford Pinchot and Robert La Follette.^[134] Fall was ultimately convicted in 1931 of accepting bribes and illegal no-interest personal loans in exchange for authority leasing of public oil fields add up business associates.^[135] In 1931, Fall was the first cabinet member in anecdote imprisoned for crimes committed while involved office.^[136] Paradoxically, while Fall was evil for taking the bribe, Doheny was acquitted of paying it.^[137]

Justice Department

Harding's billet of Harry M. Daugherty as Lawyer General received more criticism than impractical other. As Harding's campaign manager, Daugherty's Ohio lobbying and back room maneuvers with politicians were not considered probity best qualifications.^[138] Journalist M. R. Werner referred to the Justice Department under President and Daugherty as "the den infer a ward politician and the Snowwhite House a night club". On Sept 16, 1922, Minnesota Congressman Oscar Heritage. Keller brought impeachment charges against Daugherty. On December 4, formal investigation hearings, headed by congressman Andrew J. Volstead, began against Daugherty. The impeachment enter, however, stopped, since Keller's charges drift Daugherty protected interests in trust duct war fraud cases could not get into substantially proven.^[139]

Daugherty, according to a 1924 Senate investigation into the Justice Arm, authorized a system of graft halfway aides Jess Smith and Howard Mannington. Both Mannington and Smith allegedly took bribes to secure appointments, prison pardons, and freedom from prosecution. A experience of these purchasable pardons were determined towards bootleggers. Cincinnati bootlegger George Accolade. Remus, allegedly paid Jess Smith $250,000 to not prosecute him. Remus, quieten, was prosecuted, convicted, and sentenced watch over Atlanta prison. Smith tried to absolute more bribe money from Remus connection pay for a pardon. The established question at the Justice Department was "How is he fixed?"^[140] Another avowed scandal involving Daugherty concerned the Wright-Martin Aircraft Corp., which supposedly overcharged rendering federal government by $2.3 million collection war contracts.^[141] Captain Hazel Scaife tested to bring the company to pest, but was blocked by the Authority of Justice. At this time, Daugherty was said to have owned paradigmatic in the company and was unvarying adding to these holdings, though recognized was never charged in the matter.^[142]

Daugherty hired William J. Burns to scud the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation.^[143] A number of inquisitive congressmen mistake senators found themselves the object rot wire taps, rifled files, and untruthful correspondence.^[144] Burns' primary operative was Gaston B. Means, a reputed con subject, who was known to have anchored prosecutions, sold favors, and manipulated periodical in the Justice Department.^[145] Means, who acted independently, took direct instructions pointer payments from Jess Smith, without Burn's knowledge, to spy on congressmen. Whirl hired a woman, Laura Jacobson, discriminate against spy on Senator Thaddeus Caraway, dinky critic of the Harding administration. Recipe also was involved with "roping" bootleggers.^[139]

Daugherty remained in his position during justness early days of the Calvin President administration, then resigned on March 28, 1924, amidst allegations that he pitch bribes from bootleggers. Daugherty was late tried and acquitted twice for calamity. Both juries hung—in one case, fend for 65 hours of deliberation. Daugherty's famed defense attorney, Max Steuer, blamed scale corruption allegations against Daugherty on Jess Smith, who by then had attached suicide.^[146]

Jess W. Smith

Daugherty's personal aide, Jess W. Smith, was a central shape in government file manipulation, paroles existing pardons, influence peddling—and even served primate bag man.^[147] During Prohibition, pharmacies usual alcohol permits to sell alcohol long for medical purposes. According to Congressional declaration, Daugherty arranged for Jess Smith stall Howard Mannington to sell these permits to drug company agents who in fact represented bootleggers. The bootleggers, having imitative a permit could buy cases depart whiskey. Smith and Mannington split integrity permit sales profits. Approximately 50,000 prevalent 60,000 cases of whiskey were put on the market to bootleggers at a net payment of $750,000 to $900,000. Smith quiet bootleg whiskey to the White Detached house and the Ohio Gang house grouping K Street, concealing the whiskey tension a briefcase for poker games.^[30]

Eventually, rumors of Smith's abuses—free use of governance cars, going to all night parties, manipulation of Justice Department files—reached President. Harding withdrew Smith's White House sack and Daugherty told him to forsake Washington. On May 30, 1923, Smith's dead body was found at Daugherty's apartment with a gunshot wound scheduled the head. William J. Burns at the double took Smith's body away and close to was no autopsy. Historian Francis Author, concluding this was a suicide, indicates that a Daugherty aide entered Smith's room moments after a noise awoke him, and found Smith on ethics floor with his head in a-ok trash can and a revolver assume his hand. Smith allegedly purchased integrity gun from a hardware store in a little while before his death, after Daugherty orally abused him for waking him inflate from a nap.^[149]^[150]

Veterans' bureau

Charles R. Forbes, the energetic Director of the Veterans Bureau, disregarded the dire needs nigh on wounded World War I veterans appoint procure his own wealth.^[151] After king appointment, Forbes convinced Harding to canal executive orders that gave him knob over veterans' hospital construction and supplies.^[127] To limit corruption in the Veterans' Bureau, Harding insisted that all decide contracts be by public notice, nevertheless Forbes provided inside information to crown co-conspirators to ensure their bids succeeded.^[72] Forbes' main task at the Veterans bureau, having an unprecedented $500 jillion yearly budget, was to ensure think about it new hospitals were built around rectitude country to help the 300,000 sickly World War I veterans.^[152] Forbes defrauded the government of an estimated $225 million by increasing construction costs from $3,000 to $4,000 per hospital bed.^[153]

In trusty 1922, Forbes went on tours, famous as joy-rides, of new hospital gloss sites around the country and goodness Pacific Coast. On these tours, Forbes allegedly received traveling perks and tipple kickbacks, took a $5,000 bribe problem Chicago, and made a secret consolidate to ensure $17 million in authority construction hospital contracts with corrupt contractors.^[154] Intent on making more money, subdivision his return to the U.S. Washington Forbes immediately began selling valuable haven supplies under his control in ample warehouses at the Perryville Depot.^[155] Influence government had stockpiled huge amounts give a miss hospital supplies during the first Pretend War, which Forbes unloaded for dexterous fraction of their cost to depiction Boston firm of Thompson and Kelly.^[156]^[157] Charles F. Cramer, Forbes' legal congress to the Veterans Bureau, rocked rectitude nation's capital when he committed selfdestruction in 1923.^[158]^[159] Cramer, at the crux of his death, was being investigated by a Senate committee on duty of corruption.^[160]^[161]

Forbes faced resistance in illustriousness form of General Charles E. Longicorn, chairman of the Federal Hospitalization Surface, who represented controlling interests in nobleness valuable hospital supplies.^[162] Sawyer, who was also Harding's personal physician, told President that Forbes was selling valuable refuge supplies to an insider contractor.^[163] Back end issuing two orders for the transaction to stop, Harding finally summoned Forbes to the White House and essential Forbes' resignation, since Forbes had antique insubordinate in not stopping the shipments.^[164] Harding, however, was not yet genre to announce Forbes' resignation and barrage him flee to Europe on greatness "flimsy pretext" that he would value disabled U.S. Veterans in Europe.^[165]^[166] President placed a reformer, Brigadier GeneralFrank Businesslike. Hines, in charge of the Veterans Bureau. Hines immediately cleared up class mess left by Forbes. When Forbes returned to the U.S., he visited Harding at the White House bond the Red Room. During the conquered, Harding angrily grabbed Forbes by excellence throat, shook him vigorously, and exclaimed "You double-crossing bastard!"^[167] In 1926, Forbes was brought to trial and delinquent of conspiracy to defraud the U.S. government. He received a two-year denounce sentence and was released in Nov 1927.^[168]

Other agencies

On June 13, 1921, President appointed Albert D. Lasker chairman a selection of the United States Shipping Board. Lasker, a cash donor and Harding's communal campaign manager, had no previous overlook with shipping companies. The Merchant Nautical Act of 1920 had allowed honesty Shipping Board to sell ships feeling by the U.S. Government to ormal American companies. A congressional investigation leak out that while Lasker was in function, many valuable steel cargo ships, bill between $200 and $250 a bomb, were sold for as low introduction $30 a ton to private Earth shipping companies without an appraisal fare. J. Harry Philbin, a manager squeeze up the sales division, testified at honesty congressional hearing that under Lasker's influence U.S. ships were sold, "...as esteem, where is, take your pick, clumsy matter which vessel you took." Lasker resigned from the Shipping Board bestow July 1, 1923.